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that one person has lived to be one hundred and twenty-one to refute their claim. The word ‘refute’ means ‘reveal to be false’; it shouldn’t be confused with the word ‘repudiate’ which merely means ‘deny’. Counter-examples provide a strong method of undermining a generalisation.The concept of unfavorable freedom has rarely been invoked to justify oppression. As can be seen from the point out of the Fuhrer and of the Party Central Committee, Berlin believes that within the twentieth century both Nazism and communism have perverted the notion of optimistic freedom and that each Nazi and communist states have coerced their citizens, typically in opposition to their will, to grasp what their coercers believe to be their ‘true’ freedom, or the ‘true’ freedom of their nation state. The paradox is that individuals are forced to do what they say they don’t wish to do on the grounds that they actually do want to do it. What they actually need to do, on this analysis, is what they really don’t need to do. three. Berlin put these words inside inverted commas to indicate that he does not essentially settle for that such a nature is real or that such a self, if it exists, is higher. He is reporting how other individuals use these words somewhat than endorsing this way of speaking himself. One of the primary claims that Berlin makes in ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ is a historic one. It is that positive theories of freedom, or perversions of them, have been extra incessantly used as devices of oppression than have adverse ones. These constructive theories typically rely on a break up between a ‘greater’ and a ‘lower’ self, or between a ‘rational’ and an ‘empirical’ self as Berlin typically puts it. Coercion is justified on the grounds that it leads to a realisation of the aims of the upper or rational self, even if the lower, on a regular basis, empirical self opposes the coercion with all its may. The last humiliation in such a scenario is to be informed that, despite appearances, what’s going on is not coercion, since it truly increases your freedom. In different words, Berlin believes that positive theories of freedom have traditionally been used to justify some sorts of oppression and that it’s a comparatively short step from saying that freedom involves self-mastery to the justification of all types of state interference in the lives of individuals on the grounds that, in Rousseau’s words, it can, in some circumstances, be proper to be ‘forced to be free’. Berlin’s distinction between adverse and positive freedom remains a useful one, and far of are structured around it. However, his purpose within the paper was not simply to make the distinction, but rather to make a declare in regards to the ways by which theories of constructive freedom have been misused. four. It is an infringement on my freedom to prevent me from engaging in consensual sado-masochism in the privateness of my own dungeon. 2. The state protects an alcoholic’s freedom to eat large quantities of whisky within the privateness
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